Freedom and Human Action 2

Freedom and Human Action

Action

Action can be defined as a process where an individual intentionally performs a behavior involving physical movement or decision-making. This behavior is driven by beliefs and desires, leading to choices that impact oneself or the environment.

What it Means to Act

When a person is said to be acting, they are engaging in deliberate behavior or making a choice that reflects their intentions, beliefs, and desires. This implies that the person is consciously involved in decision-making, leading to observable outcomes in the world around them.

Criteria for Defining Action

1. Physical Movement: Action involves some sort of physical movement.
2. Beliefs and Desires: Action is based on the individual’s beliefs and desires, and these beliefs help determine if the action is rational or irrational.

Categories of Human Action

Right Act

Right Act is defined as an act that maximizes good, according to Bentham (1907). Right actions bring about a certain good or produce morally significant consequences.

Kinds of Right Action

• Obligatory Act: An act one is morally bound to perform; it is impermissible to refrain from doing it (Sidgwick, 1907).
• Supererogatory Act: Heroic acts or "meritorious non-duties."

Wrong Act

Wrong Act is defined as morally forbidden.

Morally Forbidden Act

Morally Forbidden Act is an act people have an obligation not to perform.

Philosophical Insights on Freedom and Action

Aristotle on the Power of Decision

Man possesses both will and intellect, and human acts result from the guidance of practical intellect on will. Practical intellect enlightens the will, translating reason into action.

Thomas Aquinas on Love and Freedom

Aquinas believed that freedom is linked to the will and love. Humans exercise free will and choose actions out of love, which is an intentional act of willing good for others.

Example: A person helps a friend out of love and concern, not out of necessity or coercion.

Jean-Paul Sartre

Sartre emphasized that the meaning of human existence lies in man's exercise of freedom and responsibility in both individual and social contexts.

Martin Heidegger

Authentic human existence requires man to:

• Free himself from inauthentic existence.
• Project his own possibilities.
• Face existential concerns like dread, care, and guilt.
• Accept death as an inevitable possibility.

Philosophical Insights on Choices and Consequences

Søren Kierkegaard

Kierkegaard emphasized that humans have an unforced, free way of making decisions. These choices actualize one's personality and must be aligned with God for authentic existence.

Method of Decision-Making (Michael Pennock)

1. Search: Begin by gathering facts.
2. Think: Reflect deeply on alternatives and consequences.
3. Others: Consider how others feel and consult them.
4. Pray: Seek divine guidance after careful consideration.

Freedom

Freedom is the natural capacity to think and actualize one's thoughts, especially when faced with choices.

Morality

Morality refers to the rightness or wrongness of an act, according to Agapay (1991).

Human Acts vs. Acts of Man

Human Acts are performed with conscious knowledge, subject to the will.

Acts of Man are instinctive and involuntary actions not controlled by the will.

Classification of Human Acts

• Moral Action: In conformity with moral norms.
• Immoral Action: Not in conformity with moral norms.
• Amoral Action: Neutral with respect to morality.

Principles of Moral Responsibility (Alfredo Panizo)

A person is morally responsible for any evil effect that follows from their actions if it is a natural consequence.

Double Effect

A human act producing both good and evil is permissible if:

• The act is good or morally neutral.
• The good effect does not result from the evil effect.
• The doer’s motive is to achieve good.
• The evil effect is incidental.

Determinants of Morality

• Object: The natural purpose and outcome of an act.
• Motive: The purpose or goal behind the action.
• Circumstances: Contextual factors (who, what, where, when, why, how).

Different Approaches to Morality

Thomistic Approach (Moral Theology)

Morality is determined by the object, intention, and circumstances of an act.

Consequentialist Approach (Utilitarian Ethics)

Morality is judged by the outcome, with happiness as the measure. Prominent philosophers include Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill.

Deontological Approach

Moral standards exist independently of the outcome. Famous philosopher: Immanuel Kant (Categorical Imperative).

Virtue Approach (Virtue Ethics)

This approach focuses on the balance between extremes, following the principle of the Golden Mean. Prominent figures include Plato, Aristotle, Mencius, and Confucius.