Logical Fallacies (2)

Logical Fallacies

Objectives

• Define the different logical fallacies.
• Distinguish the logical fallacies from one another.
• Create examples of each logical fallacy.

Logical Fallacies

A fallacy in reasoning weakens an argument and makes it false or unreliable.

• False Cause / False Dichotomy
• Straw Man
• Hasty Generalization
• Red Herring
• Bandwagon Fallacy
• Ad Hominem
• Appeal to Hypocrisy
• Appeal to Pity

Definition

• Logical Fallacies are flawed, deceptive, or false arguments that can be proven wrong with reasoning.
• They are any kind of error in reasoning that renders an argument invalid.

Reasoning

1. Deductive Reasoning

• Requires one to start with a few general ideas called premises and apply them to a specific situation.
• Its most basic form is the syllogism, where two premises that share some idea support a conclusion.
• If A=B and C=A, then B=C.

Examples:

• All cars have wheels. My vehicle is a car. Therefore, my vehicle has wheels.
• All birds have feathers. A penguin is a bird. Therefore, a penguin has feathers.
• All people who live in Paris speak French. Sarah lives in Paris. Therefore, Sarah speaks French.
• All mammals have lungs. A whale is a mammal. Therefore, a whale has lungs.

2. Inductive Reasoning

• Uses specific observations to reach a general or wider conclusion.
• A few particular premises create a pattern that gives way to a broad idea that is likely or unlikely true.

Examples:

• Mango is a fruit. The box is full of fruits. The box is full of mangoes.
• Every swan I have seen is white. I have seen many swans in different places. Therefore, all swans are probably white.
• All the students I know at this school are friendly. I have met 50 students at this school. Therefore, all students at this school are likely friendly.
• Every time I eat peanuts, my throat swells up. I ate peanuts last week, and my throat swelled up. Therefore, I may have a peanut allergy.

Hasty Generalization

• Makes a sweeping statement without considering all of the facts.
• Is a conclusion based on insufficient or biased evidence. The claim might be true in one case, but that does not mean it's always true.

Examples:

• People nowadays only vote with their emotions instead of their brains.
• Her ex-boyfriend cheated on her. Boys are cheaters.
• Anyone who supports a thief is a thief.

Which is which?

• All ABM students excel in business subjects because the ones I know do really well in their accounting and economics classes.
• Some ABM students excel in business subjects because a few of the ones I know do really well in their accounting and economics classes.

Bandwagon Fallacy / Ad Populum

• Presents the thoughts of a group of people in order to persuade someone to think the same way.
• It argues that one must accept or reject an argument based on peer pressure.
• One problem with this kind of reasoning is that the broad acceptance of a claim or action doesn't mean that it's factually justified.

Examples:

• “McDonald’s has served over 99 billion, so you should let them serve you too.”
• If you were a millennial, you should have a TikTok account because everyone’s using it.

Which is which?

• "Almost everyone at my school will be at the party Friday night. It must be a popular thing to do."
• "Almost everyone at my school will be at the party Friday night. It must be the right thing to do."

Red Herring

• An argument that uses confusion or distraction to shift attention away from a topic and toward a false conclusion.
• A common diversionary tactic to shift the focus of an argument to something easier or safer to address.

Examples:

• The level of mercury in seafood may be unsafe, but what will fishers do to support their families?
• Person A: "We need to take action to reduce our carbon emissions to prevent global warming." Person B: "But think about all the people who don’t have access to clean water—shouldn’t we focus on that first?"

Ad Hominem

• An argument that attacks a person's character rather than the quality of their idea.
• It focuses on discrediting the opponent rather than engaging with their argument.

Examples:

• "How can you argue your case for vegetarianism when you're enjoying that steak?"
• "You're not a historian, so your argument about World War II is invalid."

Appeal to Hypocrisy

• A fallacy that diverts attention from the argument by pointing out the hypocrisy in the opponent.
• It claims that a person’s argument is invalid because they don't consistently follow their own advice.

Examples:

• Person A: "You shouldn't smoke; it's bad for your health." Person B: "But you smoke too! Why should I listen to you?"
• Parent: "You need to limit your screen time." Child: "But you're always on your phone!"

Appeal to Pity

• Attempts to manipulate an emotional response in place of a valid argument.
• Uses feelings of pity or guilt to convince others instead of presenting logical reasons.

Examples:

• "If you don’t pass me in this class, my parents will be so disappointed, and I'll be heartbroken!"
• "You should hire me because I’m struggling financially and need this job to survive."

False Cause

• Assumes that because one event happened before another, the first event must have caused the second.
• Confuses correlation with causation.

Examples:

• "I wore my lucky socks, and we won the game. My lucky socks must have helped us win!"
• "Every time I wash my car, it rains. My car washing must be causing the rain."

False Dichotomy

• Presents only two options when more possibilities exist.
• Forces an oversimplified choice instead of acknowledging complexity.

Examples:

• "You're either with us or against us."
• "If you don’t love school, you must hate learning."

Straw Man

• Misrepresents an opponent’s argument to make it easier to attack.
• Distorts the actual argument to refute something that wasn’t said.

Examples:

• Person A: "We should have stricter environmental regulations." Person B: "So you want to shut down all factories and make everyone lose their jobs?"
• Person A: "We need better school funding." Person B: "You just want to raise everyone's taxes!"

Summary

• Logical fallacies weaken arguments and make reasoning unreliable.
• They include mistakes like attacking the person instead of the argument (Ad Hominem), assuming one event caused another (False Cause), and oversimplifying choices (False Dichotomy).
• Understanding these fallacies helps improve critical thinking and logical reasoning.