Logical Fallacies
Objectives
- Define the different logical fallacies.
- Distinguish the logical fallacies from one another.
- Create examples of each logical fallacy.
Logical Fallacies
A fallacy in reasoning weakens an argument and makes it false or unreliable.
Logical Fallacies:
- are flawed, deceptive, or false arguments that can be proven wrong with reasoning.
- are any kind of error in reasoning that renders an argument invalid.
Reasoning
1. Deductive Reasoning
Requires one to start with few general ideas called premises and apply them to a specific situation.
Its most basic form is the syllogism, where two premises that share some idea support a conclusion.
If A = B and C = A, then B = C.
- All cars have wheels. My vehicle is a car. Therefore, my vehicle has wheels.
- All birds have feathers. A penguin is a bird. Therefore, a penguin has feathers.
- All mammals have lungs. A whale is a mammal. Therefore, a whale has lungs.
2. Inductive Reasoning
Uses specific observations to reach a general or wider conclusion.
A few particular premises create a pattern which gives way to a broad idea that is likely or unlikely true.
- Mango is a fruit. The box is full of fruits. The box is full of mangoes.
- Every swan I have seen is white. I have seen many swans in different places. Therefore, all swans are probably white.
- Every time I eat peanuts, my throat swells up. I ate peanuts last week, and my throat swelled up. Therefore, I may have a peanut allergy.
Types of Logical Fallacies
1. Hasty Generalization
Makes a sweeping statement without considering all of the facts.
It is a conclusion based on insufficient or biased evidence.
2. Bandwagon Fallacy / Ad Populum
Presents the thoughts of a group of people in order to persuade someone to think the same way.
3. Red Herring
An argument that uses confusion or distraction to shift attention away from a topic and toward a false conclusion.
4. Ad Hominem
An attack on a person’s character or personal attributes in order to discredit their argument.
5. Straw Man
Distorts an opponent’s claim so that it is easier to refute, or when someone tries to refute a point someone made by giving a rebuttal to a point they did not make.
6. False Dichotomy
Presents two options and acts as if there are no other choices. Also known as the "either/or" fallacy.
7. Appeal to Hypocrisy
Deflects criticism away from oneself by accusing the other person of the same problem or something comparable.
8. Appeal to Pity
Ad misericordiam is a logical fallacy where someone tries to win support for their argument by eliciting pity or sympathy, rather than providing a valid or relevant reason for their position.
Examples
Hasty Generalization
- People nowadays only vote with their emotions instead of their brains.
- Her ex-boyfriend cheated on her. Boys are cheaters.
- Anyone who supports a thief is a thief.
Bandwagon Fallacy
- McDonald’s has served over 99 billion, so you should let them serve you too.
- If you were a millennial, you should have a TikTok account because everyone’s using it.
Red Herring
- The level of mercury in seafood may be unsafe, but what will fishers do to support their families?
Ad Hominem
- A mother rejects the judgment of a male pediatrician because he has never been a mother and could not possibly understand the child’s situation.
Straw Man
- Person A: "We should have more comprehensive healthcare to make sure everyone gets the treatment they need."
Person B: "Person A wants to turn our entire health system into a socialist system where the government controls everything. That's clearly a bad idea."
False Dichotomy
- Eat an apple a day or you will get sick.
Appeal to Pity
- "My client might have robbed the bank, but his family would be devastated if he went to jail."
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